Techniques of expressing foreign genes in animals, that is, techniques of producing transgenic animals are used not only for obtaining information on the gene's functions in living bodies but also for identifying DNA sequences that regulate the expression of the genes (e.g., Magram et al., Nature, 315:338, 1985), for developing model animals with human diseases (Yamamura et al., “Manual of model mice with diseases” published by Nakayama Shoten, 1994), for breeding farm animal (e.g., Muller et al., Experientia, 47:923, 1991) and for producing useful substances with these animals (e.g., Velander et al., P.N.A.S., 89:12003, 1992). Mice have been used the most frequently as hosts for gene transfer. Since mice have been studied in detail as experimental animals and the embryo manipulating techniques for mice have been established, they are the most appropriate kind of mammals for gene transfer.
Two methods are known for transferring foreign genes into mice. One is by injecting DNA into a pronucleus of a fertilized egg (Gordon et al., P.N.A.S., 77:7380, 1980). The other is by transferring DNA into a pluripotent embryonic stem cell (hereinafter referred to as “ES cell”) to produce a chimeric mouse (Takahashi et al., Development, 102:259, 1988). In the latter method, the transferred gene is retained only in ES cell-contributing cells and tissues of chimeric mice whereas it is retained in all cells and tissues of progenies obtained via ES cell-derived germ cells. These techniques have been used to produce a large number of transgenic mice up to now.
However, there had been a limit of the size of DNA capable of being transferred and this restricts the application range of these techniques. The limit depends on the size of DNA which can be cloned. One of the largest DNA fragments which have ever been transferred is a DNA fragment of about 670 kb cloned into a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) (Jakobovits et al., Nature, 362:255, 1993). Recently, introduction of YAC containing an about 1 Mb DNA fragment containing about 80 percent of variable regions and portions of constant regions (Cμ, Cδ and Cγ) of a human antibody heavy-chain was reported (Mendes et al., Nature Genetics, 15:146, 1997). These experiments were carried out by fusing a YAC-retaining yeast cell with a mouse ES cell. Although it is believed that foreign DNA of up to about 2 Mb can be cloned on YAC (Den Dunnen et al., Hum. Mol. Genet., 1:19, 1992), the recombination between homologous DNA sequences occurs frequently in budding yeast cells and therefore, in some cases, a human DNA fragment containing a large number of repeated sequences is difficult to retain in a complete form. In fact, certain recombinations occur in 20-40% of the clones of YAC libraries containing human genomic DNA (Green et al., Genomics, 11:584, 1991).
In another method that was attempted, a metaphase chromosome from a cultured human cell was dissected under observation with a microscope and the fragment (presumably having a length of at least 10 Mb) was injected into a mouse fertilized egg (Richa et al., Science, 245:175, 1989). In the resulting mice, a human specific DNA sequence (Alu sequence) was detected but the expression of human gene was not confirmed. In addition, the procedure used in this method to prepare chromosomes causes unavoidable fragmentation of DNA into small fragments due to the use of acetic acid and methanol in fixing the chromosome on slide glass and the possibility that the injected DNA exists as an intact sequence is small.
In any event, no case has been reported to date that demonstrates successful transfer and expression in mice of uninterrupted foreign DNA fragments having a length of at least 1 Mb.
Useful and interesting human genes which are desirably transferred into mice, such as genes for antibody (Cook et al., Nature Genetics, 7:162, 1994), for T cell receptor (Hood et al., Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, Vol. LVIII, 339, 1993), for histocompatibility antigen (Carrol et al., P.N.A.S. 84:8535, 1987), for dystrophin (Den Dunnen et al., supra) are known to be such that their coding regions have sizes of at least 1 Mb. Since human-type antibodies are important as pharmaceutical products, the production of mice which retain and express full lengths of genes for human immunoglobulin heavy chains (˜1.5 Mb, Cook et al., supra), and light chain κ (˜3 Mb, Zachau, Gene, 135:167, 1993), and light chain λ (˜1.5 Mb, Frippiat et al., Hum. Mol. Genet., 4:983, 1995) is desired but this is impossible to achieve by the state-of-the-art technology (Nikkei Biotec, Jul. 5, 1993).
Many of the causative genes for human dominant hereditary disease and chromosomal aberration which causes congenital deformity (Down's syndrome, etc.) have not been cloned and only the information on the approximate location of the genes on chromosome is available. For example, when a gene of interest is found to be located on a specific G band, which is made visible by subjecting a metaphase chromosome to Giemsa staining, the G band has usually a size of at least several Mb to 10 Mb. In order to transfer these abnormal phenotypes into mice, it is necessary to transfer chromosomal fragments of at least several Mb that surround the causative genes, but this is also impossible with the presently available techniques.
Hence, it is desired to develop a technique by which a foreign DNA longer than the heretofore critical 1 Mb can be transferred into a mouse and expressed in it.
DNA longer than 1 Mb can be transferred into cultured animal cells by the techniques available today. Such transfer is carried out predominantly by using a chromosome as a mediator. In the case of human, chromosomes have sizes of about 50-300 Mb. Some methods for chromosome transfer into cells have been reported (e.g., McBride et al., P.N.A.S., 70:1258, 1973). Among them, microcell fusion (Koi et al., Jpn. J. Cancer Res., 80:413, 1989) is the best method for selective transfer of a desired chromosome. The microcell is a structural body in which one to several chromosomes are encapsulated with a nuclear membrane and a plasma membrane. A few chromosomes (in many cases, one chromosome) can be transferred by inducing a microcell with an agent that inhibits the formation of spindle in a specific kind of cell, separating the microcell and fusing it with a recipient cell. The resulting libraries of monochromosomal hybrid cells containing only one human chromosome have been used for mapping known genes and specifying the chromosomes on which unknown tumor-suppressor genes and cellular senescence genes exist (e.g., Saxon et al., EMBO J., 5:3461, 1986). In addition, it is possible to fragment a chromosome by irradiating a microcell with γ-rays and to transfer part of the fragments (Koi et al., Science, 260:361, 1993). As described above, microcell fusion is considered to be an appropriate method for transferring DNA larger than 1 Mb into a cultured animal cell.
The expectation that a mouse could be generated from a cultured cell turned to a real fact when the ES cell which has stable pluripotency was discovered (Evans et al., Nature, 292:154, 1981). Foreign genes, various mutations and mutations by targeted gene recombination could be introduced into the ES cell, making it possible to perform a wide variety of genetic modifications in mice (e.g., Mansour et al., Nature, 336:348, 1988). The ES cell can be used to produce a mouse having a disrupted target gene by gene targeting techniques. The mouse is mated with a transgenic mouse having a gene of interest to produce a mouse that expresses the gene of interest efficiently. For example, a mouse having a disrupted endogenous antibody gene can be mated with a mouse having a human antibody gene transferred to produce a mouse that expresses the human antibody efficiently. A normal diploid cell has alleles. A transgenic mouse having one allele of an mouse antibody heavy-chain gene disrupted expresses an increased level of human antibody in its serum. A mouse having both alleles of mouse antibody heavy-chain gene disrupted expresses a further remarkably increased level of human antibody (S. D. Wagner et al., Genomics, 35:405-414, 1996).
Some researchers have developed a technique in which one allele of a target gene is disrupted, and then the concentration of a selective drug is increased, thereby deleting both alleles of the target gene (double knock-out). However, this technique holds the possibility of a decrease in the ability of the target gene-deficient cell to differentiate into a germ cell because the target gene-deficient cell obtained by the high-concentration-selective-culture method is cultured in vivo for a long period and because the drug-selection pressure is severe (Takatsu Taki, Experimental Medicine, supplement, Biomanual UP Series Basic Techniques for Immunological Study, Yodo-sha, 1995). In another case, if two kinds of selective drugs are used for double knocking-out, for example, if a neomycin-resistant cell is subjected to a double knock-out treatment with hygromycin, the double drug-resistant ES cell is rarely differentiated to produce a mutant mouse (Watanabe et al., Tissue Culture 21, 42-45, 1995). ES cells may lose their differentiation and growth capabilities under certain culture conditions. When a gene targeting procedure is performed twice, ES cells do not lose the ability to differentiate into germ cells of a chimeric mouse but the second homologous recombination frequency is extremely low (Katsuki et al., Experimental Medicine, Vol. 11, No. 20, special number, 1993). Hence, when a target gene-deficient homozygote is produced, particularly when at least two target genes are targeted, a mouse deficient in each target gene is produced and then the produced mice are mated with each other to produce a homozygote mouse deficient in at least two genes (N. Longberg et al., Nature, 368:856-859, 1994). If genes to be disrupted exist close to each other and if a mouse deficient in at least two genes cannot be obtained by mating, heterozygote mice deficient in the two target genes are produced from ES cells and they are mated to produce homodeficient mice (J. H. van Ree et al., Hum Mol Genet. 4:1403-1409, 1995).
An attempt to differentiate a pluripotent ES cell into a functional cell in vitro has been made (T. Nakano et al., Science, 265:1098-1101, 1994, A. J. Potocnik et al., The EMBO Journal, 13:5274-5283, 1994). The cultivation system used in this attempt, for example, a system in which the differentiation into a mature B cell can be induced is expected to be used in the identification of unknown growth and differentiation factors which will work in development and differentiation processes of B cells.
As long as the transfer of giant DNA is concerned, it has been believed that the size of the aforementioned foreign DNA fragment which can be cloned into a YAC vector is the upper limit. The prior art technology of chromosome transfer for introducing a longer DNA into cultured cells has never been applied to gene transfer into mice and this has been believed to be difficult to accomplish (Muramatsu et al., “Transgenic Biology”, published by Kodansha Scientific, p. 143-, 1989).
The reasons are as follows.
The transfer of a human chromosome into a mouse ES cell of a normal karyotype as a recipient cell would be a kind of transfer of chromosomal aberration. Up to now, it has been believed that genetic aberration at chromosomal levels which is large enough to be recognizable with microscopes is generally fatal to the embryogeny in mice (Gropp et al., J. Exp. Zool., 228:253, 1983 and Shinichi Aizawa, “Biotechnology Manual Series 8, Gene Targeting”, published by Yodosha, 1995).
Available human chromosomes are usually derived from finitely proliferative normal fibroblasts or differentiated somatic cells such as cancer cells and the like. It was believed that if a chromosome derived from such a somatic cell was transferred into an undifferentiated ES cell, the transferred chromosome might cause differentiation of the ES cell or its senescence (Muller et al., Nature, 311:438, 1984; Sugawara, Science, 247:707, 1990).
Only few studies have been reported as to whether a somatic cell-derived chromosome introduced into an early embryo can function in the process of embryonic development as normally as a germ cell-derived chromosome to ensure the expression of a specific gene in various kinds of tissues and cells. One of the big differences between the two chromosomes is assumed to concern methylation of the chromosomal DNA. The methylation is changed according to differentiation of cells and its important role in the expression of tissue-specific genes has been suggested (Ceder, Cell, 53:3, 1988). For example, it has been reported that if a methylated DNA substrate is introduced into a B cell, the methylated DNA is maintained after replication and suppresses a site-directed recombination reaction which is essential to the activation of an antibody gene (Hsieh et al., EMBO J., 11:315, 1992). In addition, it was reported that higher levels of de novo methylation occurred in established cell lines than in vivo (Antequera et al., Cell, 62:503, 1990). On the basis of the studies reported, it could not be easily expected that an antibody gene in a human fibroblast or a human-mouse hybrid cell which was likely to be methylated at a high level would be normally expressed in a mouse B cell.
It should be noted that there are two related reports of Illmensee et al. (P.N.A.S., 75:1914, 1978; P.N.A.S., 76:879, 1979). One report is about the production of chimeric mice from fused cells obtained by fusing a human sarcoma cell with a mouse EC cell and the other is about the production of chimeric mice from fused cells obtained by fusing a rat liver cancer cell with a mouse EC cell. Many questions about the results of the experiments in these two reports were pointed out and thus these reports are considered unreliable (Noguchi et al., “Mouse Teratoma”, published by Rikogakusha, Section 5, 1987). Although it has been desired to perform a follow-up as early as possible, as of today when 17 years have passed since the publication of these reports, successful reproduction of these experiments has not been reported. Hence, it is believed that foreign chromosomes cannot be retained and the genes on the chromosomes cannot be expressed in mice by the method described in these reports.
Under these circumstances, it has been believed to be difficult to transfer a giant DNA such as a chromosomal fragment and express it in an animal such as mouse. Actually, no study has been made about this problem since the Illmensee's reports.
Therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide chimeric non-human animals which retain foreign chromosomes or fragments thereof and express genes on the chromosomes or fragments, and their progenies, and a method for producing the same.
It is also an object of the present invention to provide pluripotent cells containing foreign chromosomes or fragments thereof and a method for producing the pluripotent cells.
Another object of the present invention is to provide tissues and cells derived from the chimeric non-human animals and their progenies.
A further object of the present invention is to provide hybridomas prepared by fusing the cells derived from the chimeric non-human animals and their progenies with myeloma cells.
A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method for producing a biologically active substance that is an expression product of the gene on a foreign chromosome or a fragment thereof by using the chimeric non-human animals or their progenies, or their tissues or cells.
It is also an object of the present invention to provide pluripotent cells which can be used as recipient cells into which a foreign chromosome(s) or a fragment(s) thereof is transferred in the production of chimeric non-human animals retaining the foreign chromosome(s) or fragment(s) thereof and expressing a gene(s) on the foreign chromosome(s) or fragment(s) thereof.
A further object of the present invention is to provide a method for using the pluripotent cells.
A further object of the present invention is to provide a method for modifying a chromosome(s) or fragment(s) thereof.